Fig 1: Lactobacillus salivarius AP-32 and L. reuteri GL-104 regulate the expression of monosaccharide transporters in human intestinal epithelial cells. Caco-2 cells were cocultured with Lactobacillus strains AP-32, GL-104, MH-68, TYCA06, and F-1 for 20 hours in the presence of (A–D) 0.45% glucose or (E–H) 0.45% monosaccharide mixtures. mRNA was isolated from Caco-2 cells, and PCR was performed to analyze the expression of monosaccharide transporters. PCR gel images are shown in (A) and (E). Band intensities of (B, F) GLUT2, (C, G) fructose transporter (GLUT5), and (D, H) SGLT1. Data are normalized to expression levels in Caco-2 cells treated with medium alone (dashed line). The GAPDH gene served as internal control. Bar graphs show the means of two independent experiments. GAPDH, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase; GLUT, glucose transporter; MEM, minimum essential medium; SGLT, sodium-glucose co-transporter 1.
Fig 2: Correlation of HRS number with microglial serum markers. Shown are Pearson correlation coefficients (r) and significance levels (P) for the relationship between number of HRS and Iba-1 (pg/mL ± SD), GLUT5, and TPSO serum levels (both ng/mL ± SD).
Fig 3: ELISA evaluations of Iba-1, GLUT5, and TSPO levels in the serum of non-diabetic subjects (n = 12), diabetic subjects without signs of DR (n = 14), patients with NPDR (n = 13), and patients with PDR (n = 11). Serum Iba-1 levels are reported as pg/mL ± SD; serum GLUT5 and TSPO levels are reported as ng/mL ± SD. Statistical significance was calculated with one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's comparison test. **P < 0.01 versus diabetic; °°P < 0.01 versus NPDR.
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